Machine Learning of Pyrite Geochemistry Reconstructs the Multi-Stage History of Mineral Deposits

The application of machine learning for pyrite discrimination establishes a robust foundation for constructing the ore-forming history of multi-stage deposits; however, published models face challenges related to limited, imbalanced datasets and oversampling. In this study, the dataset was expanded to approximately 500 samples for each type, including 508 sedimentary, 573 orogenic gold, 548 sedimentary exhalative (SEDEX) deposits, and 364 volcanogenic massive sulfides (VMS) pyrites, utilizing random forest (RF) and support vector machine (SVM) methodologies to enhance the reliability of the classifier models. The RF classifier achieved an overall accuracy of 99.8%, and the SVM classifier attained an overall accuracy of 100%. The model was evaluated by a five-fold cross-validation approach with 93.8% accuracy for the RF and 94.9% for the SVM classifier. These results demonstrate the strong feasibility of pyrite classification, supported by a relatively large, balanced dataset and high accuracy rates. The classifier was employed to reveal the genesis of the controversial Keketale Pb-Zn deposit in NW China, which has been inconclusive among SEDEX, VMS, or a SEDEX-VMS transition. Petrographic investigations indicated that the deposit comprises early fine-grained layered pyrite (Py1) and late recrystallized pyrite (Py2). The majority voting classified Py1 as the VMS type, with an accuracy of RF and SVM being 72.2% and 75%, respectively, and confirmed Py2 as an orogenic type with 74.3% and 77.1% accuracy, respectively. The new findings indicated that the Keketale deposit originated from a submarine VMS mineralization system, followed by late orogenic-type overprinting of metamorphism and deformation, which is consistent with the geological and geochemical observations. This study further emphasizes the advantages of Machine learning (ML) methods in accurately and directly discriminating the deposit types and reconstructing the formation history of multi-stage deposits.